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A learning community is a group of people who share common values and beliefs, are actively engaged in learning together from each other. Such communities have become the template for a cohort-based, interdisciplinary approach to higher education. This is based on an advanced kind of educational or ‘pedagogical’ design[1].

Community psychologists such as McMillan and Cavis (1986) state that there are four key factors that defined a sense of community: “(1) membership, (2) influence, (3) fulfillment of individuals needs and (4) shared events and emotional connections. So, the participants of learning community must feel some sense of loyalty and beyond to the group (membership) that drive their desire to keep working and helping others, also the things that the participant do in must affect what happened in the community, that means, an active and not just a reactive performance (influence). Besides a learning community must give the change to the participants to meet particular needs (fulfillment) by expressing personal opinions, asking for help or specific information and share stories of events with particular issue included (emotional connections) emotional experiences[2].

Learning communities are now fairly common to American colleges and universities, and are also found in the United Kingdom and Europe.

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Learning Community Models
3 Approaches
4 See also
5 Sources
6 References
7 External links

[edit] History
In a summary of the history of the concept of learning communities, Wolff-Michael Roth and Lee Yew Jin suggest that until the early 1990s, and consistent with (until then) dominant Piagetian constructivist and information processing paradigms in education, the individual was seen as the “unit of instruction” and the focus of research[3]. Roth and Lee claim this as watershed period when, influenced by the work of Jean Lave[4], and Lave and Etienne Wenger [5] among others, researchers and practitioners switched to the idea that knowing and knowledgeability are better thought of as cultural practices that are exhibited by practitioners belonging to various communities[6][7][8][9]. Roth and Lee claim that this led to forms of praxis (learning and teaching designs implemented in the classroom, and influenced by these ideas) in which students were encouraged to share their ways of doing mathematics, history, science, etc. with each other. In other words, that children take part in the construction of consensual domains, and “participate in the negotiation and institutionalisation of …meaning”. In effect, they are participating in learning communities. Roth and Lee go on to analyse the contradictions inherent in this as a theoretically informed practice in education.

This analysis does not take account of the appearance of learning communities in the United States in the early 1980s. For example, The Evergreen State College, which is widely considered a pioneer in this area, established an intercollegiate learning community in 1984. In 1985, this same college established the Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses on collaborative education approaches, including learning communities as one of its centerpieces.

Learning communities began to gain popularity at other U.S. colleges and universities during the late 80s and throughout the 90s. The Washington Center’s National Learning Commons Directory has over 250 learning community initiatives in colleges and universities throughout the nation.[10]

[edit] Learning Community Models
There are five basic nonresidential learning community models: (1) linked courses, (2) learning clusters, (3) freshmen interest groups, (4) federated learning communities, and (5) coordinated studies.

Residential learning communities, or living-learning programs, range from theme-based halls on a college dormitory to degree-granting residential colleges.[1] What these programs share is the integration of academic content with daily interactions among students, faculty, and staff living and working in these programs[11].

[edit] Approaches
Online learning community
Intergenerational equity
Youth/adult partnerships

[edit] See also
Community of practice
Professional Learning Community

[edit] Sources
Smith, B.L., & McCann, J.; Eds. (2001). Reinventing Ourselves: Interdiciplinary Education, Collaborative Learning, and Experimentation in Higher Education. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing.
Gabelnick, Faith; MacGregor, Jean; Matthews, Roberta S.; Smith, Barbara Leigh. “Learning Communities: Creating Connections Among Students, Faculty, and Disciplines.” New Directions for Teaching and Learning, Number 41, Spring 1990.
are learning communities?

[edit] References
^ Goodyear, P., De Laat, M., and Lally, V. (2006) Using Pattern Languages to Mediate Theory-Praxis Conversations in Designs for Networked Learning. ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology, 14,(3), pp211-223.
^ Bonk, C. J, Wisher, R & Nigrelli, M. (2004) Chapter 12. Learning Communities, Communities of practices: principles, technologies and examples in Littlton, Karen, Learning to Collaborate. Nova. USA.
^ Roth, W-M. and Lee, Y-J. (2006) Contradictions in theorising and implementing communities in education. Educational Research Review, 1, (1), pp27-40.
^ Lave, J. (1988) Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics and culture in everyday life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989) Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), pp32–42.
^ Roth, W.-M., & Bowen, G. M. (1995) Knowing and interacting: A study of culture, practices, and resources in a grade 8 open-inquiry science classroom guided by a cognitive apprenticeship metaphor. Cognition and Instruction, 13, 73–128.
^ Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1994). Computer support for knowledge-building communities. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3, pp265–283.
^ The Cognition and Technology Group (1994). From visual word problems to learning communities: Changing conceptions of cognitive research. In K. McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp. 157–200). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
^ http://www.evergreen.edu/washcenter/06_directory_search.asp
^ Brower, A.M. & Dettinger, K. (1998) What is a learning community? Towards a comprehensive model. About Campus, (Nov/Dec), 15-21.

[edit] External links
Center: National Learning Commons
National Study of Living-Learning Programs
Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_community”
Categories: Learning methods

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Constructivism epistemology is a epistemological perspective in philosophy about the nature of scientific knowledge held by many philosophers of science[1]. Constructivists maintain that scientific knowledge is constructed by scientists and not discovered from the world through strict scientific methods. In opposition of positivism that states that scientific knowledge comes from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific methods: the Quantitative Research. Constructivism beliefs that there is no single valid methodology and there are other methodologies for social science: the Qualitative Research.[2].

Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 History
3 Constructivism’s concepts and ideas
4 Constructivism and sciences
4.1 Social constructivism in sociology
4.2 Constructivism and psychology
4.3 Constructivism and education
4.4 Constructivism and postmodernism
5 Constructivist trends
6 Quotations
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links

[edit] Overview
Constructivism has roots in philosophy, education and social constructivism. Constructivism criticizes objectivism, which embraces a static reality that is independent of human cognition; constructivism holds that the only reality we can know is that which is represented by human thought. The reality is independent of human thought but the meaning or knowledge is always human construction[3].

Constructionism and constructivism are often used interchangeably. It is believed by constructivists that representations of physical and biological reality, including race, sexuality, and gender are socially constructed. Hegel, Garns, and Marx were among the first to suggest such an ambitious expansion of social determinism.[citation needed]

The expression “Constructivist epistemology” was first used by Jean Piaget, 1967, with plural form in the famous article from the “Encyclopédie de la Pléiade” Logique et Connaissance scientifique or “Logic and Scientific knowledge”, an important text for epistemology. He refers directly to the mathematician Brouwer and his radical constructivism.

Moreover, in 1967, Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann published The Social Construction of Reality, which has initiated social constructionism.

[edit] History
Constructivism find its roots through :

Greek philosophers as Heraclitus (Everything flows, nothing stands still), Protagoras (Man is the measure of all things), Aristotle.
After the Renaissance and the enlightenment, with the phenomenology and the event, Kant gives a decisive contradiction to Cartesians’ epistemology that has grown since Descartes despite Giambattista Vico calls in “La scienza nuova” (the new science) in 1708 reminding that “the norm of the truth is to have made it”.
XXth century, Gaston Bachelard, who is known for his physics psychoanalysis and the definition of an “epistemologic obstacle” that can disturb a changing of scientific paradigm as the one that occurred between classical mechanics and Einstein’s relativism, opens the teleological way with “The meditation on the object takes the form of the project”. In the following famous saying, he insist on the question that come first when searching a theory, before summarizing “nothing is given, all is constructed” : “And, irrespective of what one might assume, in the life of a science, problems do not arise by themselves. It is precisely this that marks out a problem as being of the true scientific spirit: all knowledge is in response to a question. If there no were question, there would be no scientific knowledge. Nothing proceeds from itself. Nothing is given. All is constructed.”, Gaston Bachelard (La formation de l’esprit scientifique, 1934). While quantum mechanics is starting to grow, Gaston Bachelard makes a call for a new science in “Le Nouvel Esprit scientifique” (The new scientific spirit).
XXth century again, French philosopher Paul Valéry reminds the importance of representations and action : “We have always sought explanations when it was only representations that we could seek to invent”, “My hand feels touched as well as it touches; reality says this, and nothing more”.
This link with action, that could be call a “philosophy of action” was well represented by Spanish poet Antonio Machado : Caminante, no hay camino, se hace camino al andar.
Ludwik Fleck establishes scientific constructivism by introducing the notions of thought collective (Denkkollektiv), and thought style (Denkstil), through which the evolution of science is much more understandable, because the research objects can be described in terms of the assumptions (thought style) that are shared for practical but also inherently social reasons, or just because any thought collective tends to preserve itself. These notions have been drawn upon by Thomas Kuhn.
Norbert Wiener gives another defense of teleology in 1943 “Behavior, intention and teleology” and is one of those who created cybernetics.
Jean Piaget, after the creation in 1955 of the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva, first uses the expression “constructivists epistemologies” (see above). According to Ernst von Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is “the great pioneer of the constructivist theory of knowing” (in An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like it Radical, 1990) and “the most prolific constructivist in our century” (in Aspects of Radical Constructivism, 1996).
Herbert Simon called « The sciences of the artificial » these new sciences (cybernetics, cognitive sciences, decision and organisation sciences) that, because of the abstraction of their object (information, communication, decision), cannot match with the classical epistemology and its experimental method and refutability.
Gregory Bateson and his book Steps to an Ecology of Mind (1972).
Heinz von Foerster, invited by Jean Piaget, presented “Objects: tokens for (Eigen-)behaviours” in 1976 in Geneva at a Genetic Epistemology Symposium, a text that will become a reference for constructivist epistemology.
Paul Watzlawick, who supervised in 1984 the publication of Invented Reality: How Do We Know What We Believe We Know? (Contributions to constructivism).
Ernst von Glasersfeld, who has promoted since the end of the 70s radical constructivism (see below).
Edgar Morin and his book La Méthode (1977-2004, six volumes).
Mioara Mugur-Schächter who is also a quantum mechanics specialist.
Jean-Louis Le Moigne for his encyclopedic work on constructivist epistemology and his General Systems theory (see “Le Moigne’s Defense of Constructivism” by Ernst von Glasersfeld).

[edit] Constructivism’s concepts and ideas
The common thread between all forms of constructivism is that they do not focus on an ontological reality, but instead on a constructed reality.[citation needed] Indeed, a basic presupposition of constructivism is that Reality-As-It-Is-In-Itself (Ontological Reality) is utterly incoherent as a concept, since there is no way to verify how one has finally reached a definitive notion of Reality. One must already have Reality in mind–that is, one must already know what Reality consists of–in order to confirm when one has at last “hit bottom.” Richard Rorty has said that all claims to Realism can be reduced to intuition (Consequences of Pragmatism, chs. 9, 11). The Realist/Anti-Realist debate can be reduced, in the end, to a conflict of intuitions: “It seems to us that…” vs “Well, it seems to us that…” A realist would not like to construe the argument in this way, and would say that one of these is misled, that one group perceives correctly, and the other perceives incorrectly. Strict constructivists will complain that there is no way to confirm one way or another, since the goal of inquiry (Reality) must be assumed to be understood at the outset. The Realist hope, in a constructivist view, is simply to arbitrarily freeze the infinite circularity that plagues human reasoning which vainly hopes to validate itself with a secure foundation.

Famously, this rather relativist theory is seen by some to contradict itself as a true affirmation: because this view also is “constructed,” that is, made and not found, built by human hands rather than discovered in Nature or Reality. Consistent constructivists, however, will reply to this tu quoque (your theory, too!) critique with a rejoinder of their own: bien sur! (of course our theory, too!). It is an obvious and foolish claim for a constructivist to play a realist with regard to his or her own perspective. It is the basic claim of constructivism which allows one to reject altogether claims to universalism, realism or objective truth. Consistent constructivists will not make any of these “hard” claims for their views, for they believe that their position is merely a view, a more or less coherent way of understanding things, that has thus far worked for them as a model of the world. This notion is deeply indebted to Darwinian theory, as it is claimed by constructivists that human understanding, as the product of Natural Selection, can be said to provide no more “true” understanding of the world as it is in itself than is absolutely necessary for human survival. Naturally, one will ask constructivists why they accept Darwin as a foundational thesis, if there are no “truer” explanations of the world than any other. Constructivists will reply that Darwinism epistemology undercuts itself as a transparent window onto the world, and reveals only its plausibility as an account. Insofar as someone desires a naturalistic account of the world that makes sense of a variety of data, Darwinism is the best (indeed, virtually only) explanatory schema that meets the requirements of modern scientific inquiry. Modern scientific inquiry, however, constructivists wish to point out, is itself subject to the contingencies of history, culture, language, and the tenuousness of the human intellect. For many, though, this self-reflexive anti-epistemology will not prove useful, desirable or very sturdy as an explanatory framework. An excellent account of the Self-Refutation Charge is given in Barbara Herrnstein Smith’s Belief & Resistance, chapter 5 (pp. 73-87; “Unloading the Self-Refutation Charge”).

Constructivism proposes new definitions for knowledge and truth that forms a new paradigm, based on inter-subjectivity instead of the classical objectivity and viability instead of truth. The constructivist point of view is pragmatic as Vico said: “the truth is to have made it”.

In this paradigm, “sciences of the artificial” (see Herbert Simon) as cybernetics, automatics or decision theory, management and engineering sciences can justify their teaching and have a space in the academy as “real sciences”.

[edit] Constructivism and sciences

[edit] Social constructivism in sociology
Main article: Social constructionism
One version of social constructivism contends that categories of knowledge and reality are actively created by social relationships and interactions. These interactions also alter the way in which scientific episteme is organized.

Social activity presupposes human beings inhabiting shared forms of life, and in the case of social construction, utilizing semiotic resources (meaning making and meaning signifying) with reference to social structures and institutions. Several traditions use the term Social Constructivism: psychology (after Lev Vygotsky), sociology (after Durkheim, Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, themselves influenced by Alfred Schütz), sociology of knowledge (David Bloor), sociology of mathematics (Sal Restivo), philosophy of mathematics (Paul Ernest). Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later philosophy can be seen as a foundation for Social Constructivism, with its key theoretical concepts of language games embedded in forms of life.

Lev Vygotsky’s social constructivist principles can be applied in new collaborative tools such as blogs, wikis, and podcasts.

[edit] Constructivism and psychology
Main article: Constructivism (psychological school)
This section requires expansion.

[edit] Constructivism and education
Main article: Constructivism (learning theory)

[edit] Constructivism and postmodernism
For some, social constructionism can be seen as a source of the postmodern movement, and has been influential in the field of cultural studies. Some have gone so far as to attribute the rise of cultural studies (the cultural turn) to social constructionism.

From a realist’s point of view, both postmodernism and constructivism can be seen as relativist theories.

[edit] Constructivist trends
Cultural constructivism
Cultural constructivism asserts that knowledge and reality are a product of their cultural context, meaning that two independent cultures will likely form different observational methodologies. For instance, Western cultures generally rely on objects for scientific descriptions; by contrast, Native American culture relies on events for descriptions. These are two distinct ways of constructing reality based on external artifacts.
Communal constructivism
In Communal constructivism students and teachers are not simply engaged in developing their own information. Rather, they are actively involved in creating knowledge that will benefit other students. “In this model students will not simply pass through a course like water through a sieve but instead leave their own imprint in the development of the course, their school or university, and ideally the discipline.” Holmes, B., Tangney, B., Fitzgibbon, A., Savage, T, & Mehan, S. (2001). [PDF]
Radical constructivism
Ernst von Glasersfeld is a prominent proponent of radical constructivism, which claims that knowledge is the self-organized cognitive process of the human brain. That is, the process of constructing knowledge regulates itself, and since knowledge is a construct rather than a compilation of empirical data, it is impossible to know the extent to which knowledge reflects an ontological reality.
See also: Francisco Varela, Humberto Maturana, and Heinz von Foerster
Critical constructivism
A series of articles published in the journal Critical Inquiry (1991) served as a manifesto for the movement of critical constructivism in various disciplines, including the natural sciences. Not only truth and reality, but also “evidence”, “document”, “experience”, “fact”, “proof”, and other central categories of empirical research (in physics, biology, statistics, history, law, etc.) reveal their contingent character as a social and ideological construction. Thus, a “realist” or “rationalist” interpretation is subjected to criticism.
While recognizing the constructedness of reality, many representatives of this critical paradigm deny philosophy the task of the creative construction of reality. They eagerly criticize realistic judgments, but they do not move beyond analytic procedures based on subtle tautologies. They thus remain in the critical paradigm and consider it to be a standard of scientific philosophy per se.
Genetic epistemology
James Mark Baldwin invented this expression, which was later popularized by Jean Piaget. From 1955 to 1980, Piaget was Director of the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva.

[edit] Quotations
Verum esse ipsum factum, Giambattista Vico
“the norm of the truth is to have made it,” or
“the true is precisely what is made”
Verum et factum convertuntur, Giambattista Vico
“the true and the made are convertible”
Et, quoi qu’on en dise, dans la vie scientifique, les problèmes ne se posent pas d’eux-mêmes. C’est précisément ce sens du problème qui donne la marque du véritable esprit scientifique. Pour un esprit scientifique, toute connaissance est une réponse à une question. S’il n’y a pas eu de question, il ne peut y avoir de connaissance scientifique. Rien ne va de soi. Rien n’est donné. Tout est construit, Gaston Bachelard (La formation de l’esprit scientifique, 1934)
“And, irrespective of what one might assume, in the life of a science, problems do not arise by themselves. It is precisely this that marks out a problem as being of the true scientific spirit: all knowledge is in response to a question. If there were no question, there would be no scientific knowledge. Nothing proceeds from itself. Nothing is given. All is constructed.”
On a toujours cherché des explications quand c’était des représentations qu’on pouvait seulement essayer d’inventer, Paul Valéry
“We have always sought explanations when it was only representations that we could seek to invent”
Ma main se sent touchée aussi bien qu’elle touche ; réel veut dire cela, et rien de plus, Paul Valéry
“My hand feels touched as well as it touches; that’s reality, and nothing more”
Intelligence organizes the world by organizing itself, Jean Piaget in “La construction du réel chez l’enfant” (1937)

[edit] See also
Related subjects
Anti-racist math
Deutsche Physik
Collective Simulations
Complexity
Constructivism (learning theory)
Constructivism in international relations
Family therapy
Irrealism
Metacognition
Personal construct psychology
Science and technology studies
Social constructionism
Systems theory
Teleology
Proponents
Gaston Bachelard
Gregory Bateson
Rolf Breuer
Michael Dummett
Franz Epting
Ludwik Fleck
Heinz von Foerster
Ernst von Glasersfeld
Barbara Herrnstein Smith
George Kelly (psychologist)
Humberto Maturana
Jean-Louis Le Moigne
Edgar Morin
Greg Neimeyer
Robert Neimeyer
Jean Piaget
Proponents
Rupert Riedl
Richard Rorty
David Rosenhan
Gerhard Roth (biologist)
Herbert Simon
Gabriel Stolzenberg
Francisco Varela
Giambattista Vico
Paul Watzlawick
Alexander Wendt
Critics
Michael Devitt
David Kenneth Johnson
Robert Nola
Wal Suchting
David J. Weissman

[edit] References
^ Routledge 2000. Concise routledge encyclopedia of Philosophy.
^ Schofield, L. Critical Theory and Constructivism
^ Research Perspectives is: Crotty, M. (1998). The Foundations of Social Science Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process.

[edit] Further reading
Jean Piaget (1967). Logique et Connaissance scientifique, Encyclopédie de la Pléiade.
Herbert Simon (1969). The Sciences of the Artificial 3rd Edition MIT Press (1996).
Paul Watzlawick (1984). Invented Reality: How Do We Know What We Believe We Know? (Contributions to constructivism), W W Norton & Co Inc; 1st edition.
Edgar Morin 1986, La Méthode, Tome 3, La Connaissance de la connaissance
Ernst von Glasersfeld (1987) The construction of knowledge, Contributions to conceptual semantics.
Ernst von Glasersfeld (1995) Radical constructivism: A way of knowing and learning.

[edit] External links
Radical Constructivism
Constructivist Foundations is a peer-reviewed journal which publishes papers on radical constructivism, enactivist cognitive science, second order cybernetics, and related topics.
Science studies and constructivism
v • d • eTheories of Truth
Coherence theory of truth · Consensus theory of truth · Constructivist theory of truth · Correspondence theory of truth · Deflationary theory of truth · Epistemic theories of truth · Indefinability theory of truth · Pragmatic theory of truth · Redundancy theory of truth · Semantic theory of truth

Electronic learning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from E-Learning)

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Electronic learning or e-Learning is a general term used to refer to a form of learning in which the instructor and student are separated by space or time where the gap between the two is bridged through the use of online technologies.

E-learning is used interchangeably in a wide variety of contexts. In companies it is referred to the strategies that use the company network to deliver training courses to employees. In distance education Universities like Open University in UK or Penn State World Campus in the USA, it is defined as a planned teaching/learning experience that uses a wide spectrum of technologies mainly Internet to reach learners at a distance. Lately in most Universities, e-learning is used to define a specific mode to attend a course or programmes of study where the students rarely, if ever, attend face-to-face or for on-campus access to educational facilities, because they study on-line.

Contents [hide] 1 Market 2 Growth of e-learning 3 Technology 4 Services 5 Goals of e-learning 5.1 Computer-based learning 5.2 Computer-based training 6 Pedagogical elements 7 Pedagogical approaches or perspectives 8 Reusability, standards and learning objects 9 Communication technologies used in e-learning 10 E-Learning 2.0 11 Computer-aided assessment and learning design 12 Learning management system or E-learning software platforms 13 See also 14 References 15 External links

[edit] Market

The worldwide e-learning industry is estimated to be worth over 38 billion euros according to conservative estimates, although in the European Union only about 20% of e-learning products are produced within the common market ^[1]. Developments in internet and multimedia technologies are the basic enabler of e-learning, with content, technologies and services being identified as the three key sectors of the e-learning industry. ^[2]

[edit] Growth of e-learning

By 2006, nearly 3.5 million students were participating in on-line learning at institutions of higher education in the United States.^[3] Many higher education, for-profit institutions, now offer on-line classes. By contrast, only about half of private, non-profit schools offer them. The Sloan report, based on a poll of academic leaders, says that students generally appear to be at least as satisfied with their on-line classes as they are with traditional ones. Private Institutions may become more involved with on-line presentations as the cost of instituting such a system decreases. Properly trained staff must also be hired to work with students on-line. These staff members must be able to not only understand the content area, but also be highly trained in the use of the computer and Internet. Online education is rapidly increasing, and online doctoral programs have even developed at leading research universities. ^[4] .

[edit] Technology

Many technologies can be, and are, used in e-Learning, including:

• blogs
• classroom response system
• collaborative software
• computer aided assessment
• discussion boards
• e-mail
• Educational Management System
• educational animation
• electronic performance support system
• ePortfolios
• games
• hypermedia in general
• learning management systems
• PDA’s
• podcasts
• MP3 Players with multimedia capabilities
• multimedia CD-ROMs
• screencasts
• simulations
• text chat
• virtual classrooms
• web-based teaching materials
• web sites and web 2.0 communities
• wiki

Most eLearning situations use combinations of the above techniques.

An example of this is Moodle which uses: discussion board threading, wiki and real time textual chat. However, moodle is referred to as a Course Management System (CMS). This is because course material is often video, mp3, text documents, scanned images or links to other web sites.

Along with the terms learning technology, instructional technology, and Educational Technology, the term is generally used to refer to the use of technology in learning in a much broader sense than the computer-based training or Computer Aided Instruction of the 1980s. It is also broader than the terms Online Learning or Online Education which generally refer to purely web-based learning. In cases where mobile technologies are used, the term M-learning has become more common. E-learning, however, also has implications beyond just the technology and refers to the actual learning that takes place using these systems.

E-learning is naturally suited to distance learning and flexible learning, but can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term Blended learning is commonly used.
In higher education especially, the increasing tendency is to create a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) (which is sometimes combined with a Management Information System (MIS) to create a Managed Learning Environment) in which all aspects of a course are handled through a consistent user interface standard throughout the institution. A growing number of physical universities, as well as newer online-only colleges, have begun to offer a select set of academic degree and certificate programs via the Internet at a wide range of levels and in a wide range of disciplines. While some programs require students to attend some campus classes or orientations, many are delivered completely online. In addition, several universities offer online student support services, such as online advising and registration, e-counselling, online textbook purchase, student governments and student newspapers.

e-Learning can also refer to educational web sites such as those offering learning scenarios, worksheets and interactive exercises for children. The term is also used extensively in the business sector where it generally refers to cost-effective online training.

[edit] Services

E-learning services have evolved since computers were first used in education. There is a trend to move toward blended learning services, where computer-based activities are integrated with practical or classroom-based situations.

[edit] Goals of e-learning

E-Learning lessons are generally designed to guide students through information or to help students perform in specific tasks. Information based e-Learning content communicates information to the student. Examples include content that distributes the history or facts related to a service, company, or product. In information-based content, there is no specific skill to be learned. In performance-based content, the lessons build off of a procedural skill in which the student is expected to increase proficiency.

[edit] Computer-based learning

Computer Based Learning, sometimes abbreviated to CBL, refers to the use of computers as a key component of the educational environment. While this can refer to the use of computers in a classroom, the term more broadly refers to a structured environment in which computers are used for teaching purposes. The concept is generally seen as being distinct from the use of computers in ways where learning is at least a peripheral element of the experience (e.g. computer games and web browsing).

[edit] Computer-based training

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2007)

Computer-based training (CBT) services are where a student learns by executing special training programs on a computer relating to their occupation. CBT is especially effective for training people to use computer applications because the CBT program can be integrated with the applications so that students can practice using the application as they learn. Historically, CBTs growth has been hampered by the enormous resources required: human resources to create a CBT program, and hardware resources needed to run it. However, the increase in PC computing power, and especially the growing prevalence of computers equipped with CD-ROMs, is making CBT a more viable option for corporations and individuals alike. Many PC applications now come with some modest form of CBT, often called a tutorial. Web-based training (WBT) is a type of training that is similar to CBT; however, it is delivered over the Internet using a web browser. Web-based training frequently includes interactive methods, such as bulletin boards, chat rooms, instant messaging, videoconferencing, and discussion threads. Web based training is usually a self-paced learning medium though some systems allow for online testing and evaluation at specific times.

[edit] Pedagogical elements

Pedagogical elements are an attempt to define structures or units of educational material. For example, this could be a lesson, an assignment, a multiple choice question, a quiz, a discussion group or a case study. These units should be format independent, so although it may be implemented in any of the following methods, pedagogical structures would not include a textbook, a web page, a video conference or an iPod video.

When beginning to create e-Learning content, the pedagogical approaches need to be evaluated. Simple pedagogical approaches make it easy to create content, but lack flexibility, richness and downstream functionality. On the other hand, complex pedagogical approaches can be difficult to set up and slow to develop, though they have the potential to provide more engaging learning experiences for students. Somewhere between these extremes is an ideal pedagogy that allows a particular educator to effectively create educational materials while simultaneously providing the most engaging educational experiences for students.

[edit] Pedagogical approaches or perspectives

It is possible to use various pedagogical approaches for eLearning which include:

• instructional design - the traditional pedagogy of instruction which is curriculum focused, and is developed by a centralized educating group or a single teacher.

• social-constructivist - this pedagogy is particularly well afforded by the use of discussion forums, blogs, wiki and on-line collaborative activities. It is a collaborative approach that opens educational content creation to a wider group including the students themselves.

• Laurillard’s Conversational Model^[5] is also particularly relevant to eLearning, and Gilly Salmon’s Five-Stage Model is a pedagogical approach to the use of discussion boards ^[6].

• Cognitive perspective focuses on the cognitive processes involved in learning as well as how the brain works.^[7]

• Emotional perspective focuses on the emotional aspects of learning, like motivation, engagement, fun, etc.^[8]

• Behavioural perspective focuses on the skills and behavioural outcomes of the learning process. Role-playing and application to on-the-job settings.^[9]

• Contextual perspective focuses on the environmental and social aspects which can stimulate learning. Interaction with other people, collaborative discovery and the importance of peer support as well as pressure.^[10]

[edit] Reusability, standards and learning objects

Much effort has been put into the technical reuse of electronically-based teaching materials and in particular creating or re-using Learning Objects. These are self contained units that are properly tagged with keywords, or other metadata, and often stored in an XML file format. Creating a course requires putting together a sequence of learning objects. There are both proprietary and open, non-commercial and commercial, peer-reviewed repositories of learning objects such as the Merlot repository.

A common standard format for e-learning content is SCORM whilst other specifications allow for the transporting of “learning objects” (Schools Interoperability Framework) or categorizing meta-data (LOM).

These standards themselves are early in the maturity process with the oldest being 8 years old. They are also relatively vertical specific: SIF is primarily pK-12, LOM is primarily Corp, Military and Higher Ed, and SCORM is primarily Military and Corp with some Higher Ed. PESC- the Post-Secondary Education Standards Council- is also making headway in developing standards and learning objects for the Higher Ed space, while SIF is beginning to seriously turn towards Instructional and Curriculum learning objects.

In the US pK12 space there are a host of content standards that are critical as well- the NCES data standards are a prime example. Each state government’s content standards and achievement benchmarks are critical metadata for linking e-learning objects in that space.

[edit] Communication technologies used in e-learning

Communication technologies are generally categorized as asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous activities use technologies such as blogs, wikis, and discussion boards. The idea here is that participants may engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency of other participants involvement at the same time. Electronic mail (Email) is also asynchronous in that mail can be sent or received without having both the participants’ involvement at the same time.

Synchronous activities involve the exchange of ideas and information with one or more participants during the same period of time. A face to face discussion is an example of synchronous communications. Synchronous activities occur with all participants joining in at once, as with an online chat session or a virtual classroom or meeting.

Virtual classrooms and meetings can often use a mix of communication technologies.

In many models, the writing community and the communication channels relate with the E-learning and the M-learning communities. Both the communities provide a general overview of the basic learning models and the activities required for the participants to join the learning sessions across the virtual classroom or even across standard classrooms enabled by technology. Many activities, essential for the learners in these environments, require frequent chat sessions in the form of virtual classrooms and/or blog meetings.

[edit] E-Learning 2.0

The term e-Learning 2.0^[11][12] is used to refer to new ways of thinking about e-learning inspired by the emergence of Web 2.0^[13]. From an e-Learning 2.0 perspective, conventional e-learning systems were based on instructional packets that were delivered to students using Internet technologies. The role of the student consisted in learning from the readings and preparing assignments. Assignments were evaluated by the teacher. In contrast, the new e-learning places increased emphasis on social learning and use of social software such as blogs, wikis, podcasts and virtual worlds such as Second Life. This phenomenon has also been referred to as Long Tail Learning^[14]

The new focus in social learning replaces the traditional Cartesian View of knowledge and learning. The Cartesian perspective that underpins the old e-learning assumes that knowledge is a kind of substance, so it can be packaged using instructional methodologies in order to be delivered and transferred to the students. By contrast, e-learning 2.0 assumes that knowledge (as meaning and understanding) is socially constructed. Construction takes place through conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. Advocates of social learning claim that one of the best ways to learn something is to teach it to others.^[15]

As one example, Second Life has recently become one of the virtual classroom environments used in colleges and universities, including Princeton University (USA), Rice University (USA), University of Derby (UK), Vassar College (USA), the University of Plymouth (UK) and the Open University (UK),^[16]. In 2007 Second Life started to be used for foreign language tuition ^[17]. Both Second Life and real life language educators have begun to use the virtual world for language tuition. English (as a foreign language) has gained a presence through several schools, including British Council projects which have focused on the Teen Grid. Spain’s language and cultural institute “Instituto Cervantes” has an island on Second Life. A list of educational projects (including some language schools) in Second Life can be found on the SimTeach site.

[edit] Computer-aided assessment and learning design

Computer-aided Assessment (also but less commonly referred to as E-assessment), ranging from automated multiple-choice tests to more sophisticated systems is becoming increasingly common. With some systems, feedback can be geared towards a student’s specific mistakes or the computer can navigate the student through a series of questions adapting to what the student appears to have learned or not learned. Most software for this is still very primitive however.

The term learning design has sometimes come to refer to the type of activity enabled by software such as the open-source system LAMS [1] which supports sequences of activities that can be both adaptive and collaborative. The IMS Learning Design specification is intended as a standard format for learning designs, and IMS LD Level A is supported in LAMS V2.

[edit] Learning management system or E-learning software platforms

Below is a list of some of the e-learning platforms that are available.

Open source

Open-source Virtual Learning Environments (VLE)

• ATutor
• Claroline
• Dokeos
• eFront
• ILIAS
• KEWL
• Lectureshare
• LON-CAPA
• Moodle
• OLAT
• Sakai Project

Proprietary

• Lectora by Trivantis
• Content Point collaborative e-learning platform
• D2L eLearning Enterprise
• eCollege
• Elluminate
• ANGEL Learning
• Authorware
• Blackboard
• Captivate
• Acrobat Connect (formerly Macromedia Breeze)
• Brihaspati
• Tooling University
• FirstClass
• Knowledge Forum
• WebCT
• WebEx
• Xmind
• TutorVista

[edit] See also

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of

ICT in Education

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of

Blended Learning

• Blended learning
• SIF(Schools Interoperability Framework)
• CALL (computer-assisted language learning) (for a more historical perspective)
• Collaborative learning
• Computeach
• Computer-based testing
• Confidence-Based Learning
• Distance education
• Edublog
• Educational game
• Educational technology
• Electronic performance support systems
• Flexible Learning
• History of automated adaptive instruction in computer applications
• History of virtual learning environments
• Learning management system
• Learning content management system
• Learning & Development
• M-learning
• Microlearning
• National University Virtual High School
• Networked learning
• Online deliberation
• Online learning community
• Transactional distance
• Videobook
• Virtual Campus
• Virtual education
• Virtual learning environment
• Virtual university
• eLML - eLesson Markup Language
• Adaptive hypermedia

[edit] References

1. ^ EC (2000). Communication from the Commission: E-Learning - Designing tomorrow’s education. Brussels: European Commission
2. ^ Nagy, A. (2005). The Impact of E-Learning, in: Bruck, P.A.; Buchholz, A.; Karssen, Z.; Zerfass, A. (Eds). E-Content: Technologies and Perspectives for the European Market. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp.79-96
3. ^ “Sloan Consortium”
4. ^ Hebert, D. G. (2007). “Five Challenges and Solutions in Online Music Teacher Education,” Research and Issues in Music Education, Vol. 5
5. ^ Informal description of Laurillard’s Model
6. ^ E-moderating: The Key to Teaching and Learning Online - Gilly Salmon , Kogan Page, 2000, ISBN 0-7494-4085-6
7. ^ Bloom, B. S., and D. R. Krathwohl. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1
8. ^ Bååth, J. A. (1982) “Distance Students’ Learning - Empirical Findings and Theoretical Deliberations”
9. ^ Areskog, N-H. (1995) The Tutorial Process - the Roles of Student Teacher and Tutor in a Long Term Perspective
10. ^ Black, J. & McClintock, R. (1995) “An Interpretation Construction Approach to Constructivist Design.”
11. ^ Karrer, T (2006) What is eLearning 2.0? http://elearningtech.blogspot.com/2006/02/what-is-elearning-20.html
12. ^ Karrer, T (2007) Understanding eLearning 2.0 http://www.learningcircuits.org/2007/0707karrer.html
13. ^ Downes, S (2005) E-Learning 2.0. http://www.downes.ca/post/31741
14. ^ Karrer, T (2008) Corporate Long Tail Learning and Attention Crisis http://elearningtech.blogspot.com/2008/02/corporate-learning-long-tail-and.html
15. ^ Brown J.S & Adler R, 2008, ‘Minds on Fire: Open Education, the Long Tail, and Learning 2.0′, Educause review, Jan/Feb 2008, pp 16-32
<http://connect.educause.edu/Library/EDUCAUSE+Review/MindsonFireOpenEducationt/45823?time=1206661710>
16. ^ Parker, Quin. “A second look at school life“, The Guardian, 2007-04-6. Retrieved on 2007-06-16. 
17. ^ Dorveaux, Xavier. “Apprendre une langue dans un monde virtuel“, Le Monde, 2007-07-15. Retrieved on 2007-07-15. 

[edit] External links

• Distance Learning at the Open Directory Project
• Instructional Technology at the Open Directory Project

Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_learning“

Categories: Education-related terms | History of education | Virtual learning environments | Distance education

Hidden category: Articles needing additional references from September 2007

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A learning community is a group of people who share common values and beliefs, are actively engaged in learning together from each other. Such communities have become the template for a cohort-based, interdisciplinary approach to higher education. This is based on an advanced kind of educational or ‘pedagogical’ design^[1].

Community psychologists such as McMillan and Cavis (1986) state that there are four key factors that defined a sense of community: “(1) membership, (2) influence, (3) fulfillment of individuals needs and (4) shared events and emotional connections. So, the participants of learning community must feel some sense of loyalty and beyond to the group (membership) that drive their desire to keep working and helping others, also the things that the participant do in must affect what happened in the community, that means, an active and not just a reactive performance (influence). Besides a learning community must give the change to the participants to meet particular needs (fulfillment) by expressing personal opinions, asking for help or specific information and share stories of events with particular issue included (emotional connections) emotional experiences^[2].

Learning communities are now fairly common to American colleges and universities, and are also found in the United Kingdom and Europe.

[edit] History

In a summary of the history of the concept of learning communities, Wolff-Michael Roth and Lee Yew Jin suggest that until the early 1990s, and consistent with (until then) dominant Piagetian constructivist and information processing paradigms in education, the individual was seen as the “unit of instruction” and the focus of research^[3]. Roth and Lee claim this as watershed period when, influenced by the work of Jean Lave^[4], and Lave and Etienne Wenger ^[5] among others, researchers and practitioners switched to the idea that knowing and knowledgeability are better thought of as cultural practices that are exhibited by practitioners belonging to various communities^[6][7][8][9]. Roth and Lee claim that this led to forms of praxis (learning and teaching designs implemented in the classroom, and influenced by these ideas) in which students were encouraged to share their ways of doing mathematics, history, science, etc. with each other. In other words, that children take part in the construction of consensual domains, and “participate in the negotiation and institutionalisation of …meaning”. In effect, they are participating in learning communities. Roth and Lee go on to analyse the contradictions inherent in this as a theoretically informed practice in education.

This analysis does not take account of the appearance of learning communities in the United States in the early 1980s. For example, The Evergreen State College, which is widely considered a pioneer in this area, established an intercollegiate learning community in 1984. In 1985, this same college established the Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses on collaborative education approaches, including learning communities as one of its centerpieces.

Learning communities began to gain popularity at other U.S. colleges and universities during the late 80s and throughout the 90s. The Washington Center’s National Learning Commons Directory has over 250 learning community initiatives in colleges and universities throughout the nation.^[10]

[edit] Learning Community Models

There are five basic nonresidential learning community models: (1) linked courses, (2) learning clusters, (3) freshmen interest groups, (4) federated learning communities, and (5) coordinated studies.

Residential learning communities, or living-learning programs, range from theme-based halls on a college dormitory to degree-granting residential colleges.[1] What these programs share is the integration of academic content with daily interactions among students, faculty, and staff living and working in these programs^[11].

[edit] Approaches

• Online learning community
• Intergenerational equity
• Youth/adult partnerships

[edit] See also

• Community of practice
• Professional Learning Community

[edit] Sources

• Smith, B.L., & McCann, J.; Eds. (2001). Reinventing Ourselves: Interdiciplinary Education, Collaborative Learning, and Experimentation in Higher Education. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing.
• Gabelnick, Faith; MacGregor, Jean; Matthews, Roberta S.; Smith, Barbara Leigh. “Learning Communities: Creating Connections Among Students, Faculty, and Disciplines.” New Directions for Teaching and Learning, Number 41, Spring 1990.
• are learning communities?

[edit] References

1. ^ Goodyear, P., De Laat, M., and Lally, V. (2006) Using Pattern Languages to Mediate Theory-Praxis Conversations in Designs for Networked Learning. ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology, 14,(3), pp211-223.
2. ^ Bonk, C. J, Wisher, R & Nigrelli, M. (2004) Chapter 12. Learning Communities, Communities of practices: principles, technologies and examples in Littlton, Karen, Learning to Collaborate. Nova. USA.
3. ^ Roth, W-M. and Lee, Y-J. (2006) Contradictions in theorising and implementing communities in education. Educational Research Review, 1, (1), pp27-40.
4. ^ Lave, J. (1988) Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics and culture in everyday life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5. ^ Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6. ^ Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989) Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), pp32–42.
7. ^ Roth, W.-M., & Bowen, G. M. (1995) Knowing and interacting: A study of culture, practices, and resources in a grade 8 open-inquiry science classroom guided by a cognitive apprenticeship metaphor. Cognition and Instruction, 13, 73–128.
8. ^ Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1994). Computer support for knowledge-building communities. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3, pp265–283.
9. ^ The Cognition and Technology Group (1994). From visual word problems to learning communities: Changing conceptions of cognitive research. In K. McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp. 157–200). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
10. ^ http://www.evergreen.edu/washcenter/06_directory_search.asp
11. ^ Brower, A.M. & Dettinger, K. (1998) What is a learning community? Towards a comprehensive model. About Campus, (Nov/Dec), 15-21.

[edit] External links

• Center: National Learning Commons
• National Study of Living-Learning Programs

Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_community“

Categories: Learning methods

Electronic learning or e-Learning is a general term used to refer a form of learning in which the instructor and student are separated by space or time where the gap between the two is bridged through the use of online technologies.

E-learning is used interchangeably in so many contexts. In companies it is referred to the strategies that use the company network to deliver training courses to employees. In distance education Universities like Open University in UK or Penn State World Campus in the USA, it is defined as a planned teaching/learning experience that uses a wide spectrum of technologies mainly Internet to reach learners at a distance. Lately in most Universities, e-learning is used to define a specific mode to attend a course or programmes of study where the students rarely, if ever, attend face-to-face or for on-campus access to educational facilities, because they study on-line.

In many respects, it is commonly associated with the field of advanced learning technology (ALT), which deals with both the technologies and associated methodologies in learning using networked and/or multimedia technologies.

[edit] Market

The worldwide e-learning industry is estimated to be worth over 38 billion euros according to conservative estimates, although in the European Union only about 20% of e-learning products are produced within the common market ^[1]. Developments in internet and multimedia technologies are the basic enabler of e-learning, with content, technologies and services being identified as the three key sectors of the e-learning industry. ^[2]

[edit] Growth of e-learning

By 2006, nearly 3.5 million students were participating in on-line learning at institutions of higher education in the United States.^[3] Many higher education, for-profit institutions, now offer on-line classes. By contrast, only about half of private, non-profit schools offer them. The Sloan report, based on a poll of academic leaders, says that students generally appear to be at least as satisfied with their on-line classes as they are with traditional ones. Private Institutions may become more involved with on-line presentations as the cost of instituting such a system decreases. Properly trained staff must also be hired to work with students on-line. These staff members must be able to not only understand the content area, but also be highly trained in the use of the computer and Internet. Online education is rapidly increasing, and online doctoral programs have even developed at leading research universities. ^[4] .

[edit] Technology

Many technologies can be, and are, used in e-Learning, including:

• blogs
• classroom response system
• collaborative software
• computer aided assessment
• discussion boards
• e-mail
• Educational Management System
• educational animation
• electronic performance support system
• ePortfolios
• games
• hypermedia in general
• learning management systems
• PDA’s
• podcasts
• MP3 Players with multimedia capabilities
• multimedia CD-ROMs
• screencasts
• simulations
• text chat
• virtual classrooms
• web-based teaching materials
• web sites and web 2.0 communities
• wiki

Most eLearning situations use combinations of the above techniques.

An example of this is Moodle which uses: discussion board threading, wiki and real time textual chat. However, moodle is referred to as a Course Management System (CMS). This is because course material is often video, mp3, text documents, scanned images or links to other web sites.

Along with the terms learning technology, instructional technology, and Educational Technology, the term is generally used to refer to the use of technology in learning in a much broader sense than the computer-based training or Computer Aided Instruction of the 1980s. It is also broader than the terms Online Learning or Online Education which generally refer to purely web-based learning. In cases where mobile technologies are used, the term M-learning has become more common. E-learning, however, also has implications beyond just the technology and refers to the actual learning that takes place using these systems.

E-learning is naturally suited to distance learning and flexible learning, but can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term Blended learning is commonly used.
In higher education especially, the increasing tendency is to create a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) (which is sometimes combined with a Management Information System (MIS) to create a Managed Learning Environment) in which all aspects of a course are handled through a consistent user interface standard throughout the institution. A growing number of physical universities, as well as newer online-only colleges, have begun to offer a select set of academic degree and certificate programs via the Internet at a wide range of levels and in a wide range of disciplines. While some programs require students to attend some campus classes or orientations, many are delivered completely online. In addition, several universities offer online student support services, such as online advising and registration, e-counselling, online textbook purchase, student governments and student newspapers.

e-Learning can also refer to educational web sites such as those offering learning scenarios, worksheets and interactive exercises for children. The term is also used extensively in the business sector where it generally refers to cost-effective online training.

[edit] Services

E-learning services have evolved since computers were first used in education. There is a trend to move toward blended learning services, where computer-based activities are integrated with practical or classroom-based situations.

[edit] Goals of e-learning

E-Learning lessons are generally designed to guide students through information or to help students perform in specific tasks. Information based e-Learning content communicates information to the student. Examples include content that distributes the history or facts related to a service, company, or product. In information-based content, there is no specific skill to be learned. In performance-based content, the lessons build off of a procedural skill in which the student is expected to increase proficiency.

[edit] Computer-based learning

Computer Based Learning, sometimes abbreviated to CBL, refers to the use of computers as a key component of the educational environment. While this can refer to the use of computers in a classroom, the term more broadly refers to a structured environment in which computers are used for teaching purposes. The concept is generally seen as being distinct from the use of computers in ways where learning is at least a peripheral element of the experience (e.g. computer games and web browsing).

[edit] Computer-based training

Computer-based training (CBT) services are where a student learns by executing special training programs on a computer relating to their occupation. CBT is especially effective for training people to use computer applications because the CBT program can be integrated with the applications so that students can practice using the application as they learn. Historically, CBTs growth has been hampered by the enormous resources required: human resources to create a CBT program, and hardware resources needed to run it. However, the increase in PC computing power, and especially the growing prevalence of computers equipped with CD-ROMs, is making CBT a more viable option for corporations and individuals alike. Many PC applications now come with some modest form of CBT, often called a tutorial. Web-based training (WBT) is a type of training that is similar to CBT; however, it is delivered over the Internet using a web browser. Web-based training frequently includes interactive methods, such as bulletin boards, chat rooms, instant messaging, videoconferencing, and discussion threads. Web based training is usually a self-paced learning medium though some systems allow for online testing and evaluation at specific times.

[edit] Pedagogical elements

Pedagogical elements are an attempt to define structures or units of educational material. For example, this could be a lesson, an assignment, a multiple choice question, a quiz, a discussion group or a case study. These units should be format independent, so although it may be implemented in any of the following methods, pedagogical structures would not include a textbook, a web page, a video conference or an iPod video.

When beginning to create e-Learning content, the pedagogical approaches need to be evaluated. Simple pedagogical approaches make it easy to create content, but lack flexibility, richness and downstream functionality. On the other hand, complex pedagogical approaches can be difficult to set up and slow to develop, though they have the potential to provide more engaging learning experiences for students. Somewhere between these extremes is an ideal pedagogy that allows a particular educator to effectively create educational materials while simultaneously providing the most engaging educational experiences for students.

[edit] Pedagogical approaches or perspectives

It is possible to use various pedagogical approaches for eLearning which include:

• instructional design - the traditional pedagogy of instruction which is curriculum focused, and is developed by a centralized educating group or a single teacher.

• social-constructivist - this pedagogy is particularly well afforded by the use of discussion forums, blogs, wiki and on-line collaborative activities. It is a collaborative approach that opens educational content creation to a wider group including the students themselves.

• Laurillard’s Conversational Model^[5] is also particularly relevant to eLearning, and Gilly Salmon’s Five-Stage Model is a pedagogical approach to the use of discussion boards ^[6].

• Cognitive perspective focuses on the cognitive processes involved in learning as well as how the brain works.^[7]

• Emotional perspective focuses on the emotional aspects of learning, like motivation, engagement, fun, etc.^[8]

• Behavioural perspective focuses on the skills and behavioural outcomes of the learning process. Role-playing and application to on-the-job settings.^[9]

• Contextual perspective focuses on the environmental and social aspects which can stimulate learning. Interaction with other people, collaborative discovery and the importance of peer support as well as pressure.^[10]

[edit] Reusability, standards and learning objects

Much effort has been put into the technical reuse of electronically-based teaching materials and in particular creating or re-using Learning Objects. These are self contained units that are properly tagged with keywords, or other metadata, and often stored in an XML file format. Creating a course requires putting together a sequence of learning objects. There are both proprietary and open, non-commercial and commercial, peer-reviewed repositories of learning objects such as the Merlot repository.

A common standard format for e-learning content is SCORM whilst other specifications allow for the transporting of “learning objects” (Schools Interoperability Framework) or categorizing meta-data (LOM).

These standards themselves are early in the maturity process with the oldest being 8 years old. They are also relatively vertical specific: SIF is primarily pK-12, LOM is primarily Corp, Military and Higher Ed, and SCORM is primarily Military and Corp with some Higher Ed. PESC- the Post-Secondary Education Standards Council- is also making headway in developing standards and learning objects for the Higher Ed space, while SIF is beginning to seriously turn towards Instructional and Curriculum learning objects.

In the US pK12 space there are a host of content standards that are critical as well- the NCES data standards are a prime example. Each state government’s content standards and achievement benchmarks are critical metadata for linking e-learning objects in that space.

[edit] Communication technologies used in e-learning

Communication technologies are generally categorized as asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous activities use technologies such as blogs, wikis, and discussion boards. The idea here is that participants may engage in the exchange of ideas or information without the dependency of other participants involvement at the same time. Electronic mail (Email) is also asynchronous in that mail can be sent or received without having both the participants’ involvement at the same time.

Synchronous activities involve the exchange of ideas and information with one or more participants during the same period of time. A face to face discussion is an example of synchronous communications. Synchronous activities occur with all participants joining in at once, as with an online chat session or a virtual classroom or meeting.

Virtual classrooms and meetings can often use a mix of communication technologies.

In many models, the writing community and the communication channels relate with the E-learning and the M-learning communities. Both the communities provide a general overview of the basic learning models and the activities required for the participants to join the learning sessions across the virtual classroom or even across standard classrooms enabled by technology. Many activities, essential for the learners in these environments, require frequent chat sessions in the form of virtual classrooms and/or blog meetings.

[edit] E-Learning 2.0

The term e-Learning 2.0 is used to refer to the evolution of the e-learning system that have been changed lately with the World Wide Web as a whole Web 2.0^[11]. In the beginning the e-learning systems was based in instructional packets that was delivered to the students using Internet technologies. The role of the student consists in learning the reading and preparing their assignments that was evaluated by the teacher. The new e-learning emphasize in social learning and use of social software such as blogs, wikis, podcasts and virtual worlds such as Second Life.

The new focus in social learning stands in the traditional Cartesian View of knowledge and learning. The Cartesian perspective that underpin the old e-learning, assumes that knowledge is a kind of substance, so it need to be packeted using instructional methodologies in order to be deliver and transfer to the students. By contrast, e-learning 2.0 assumes that knowledge as meaning and understanding is social constructed by conversations about content and grounded interaction about problems and actions. There are compelling evidence form importance of social learning, for instance, students who studied in groups learn significantly more than students who worked on their own. Social learning state that one of the best ways to learn something is to teach it to others.^[12]

Second Life has recently become one of the cutting-edge virtual classrooms for major colleges and universities, including Princeton, Rice University, University of Derby (UK), Vassar, the University of Plymouth (UK) and the Open University (UK),^[13]. In 2007 Second Life started to be used for foreign language tuition ^[14]. Both Second Life and real life language educators have begun to use the virtual world for language tuition. English (as a foreign language) has gained a presence through several schools, including the British Council, which has focused on the